Cognitive Development~Vygotsky

SocioCultural Theory

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory. Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function." In other words, social learning tends to come before development. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop his ideas, but he died at the age of 37 and so his theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian. No single principle can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is included. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance - a child or their parents?

In fact, the MKO does not have to be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems.  Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is  related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.

This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Vygotsky sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies.  He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema.  However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor often the parent or teacher then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.

Cognitive Development~ Piaget's Theory

Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology. 

Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.

There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:    

Learning about Piaget's theory and the different stages is unique for me because I have three younger siblings. So I can look at the different stages and compare that to my siblings. My youngest brother is 1 years old so he would be in stage one. My sister is 2 years old almost 3 so she would be in stage 2. My oldest brother is 15 so he would be in stage 4 just like me. 

Its important that I learn about different theories of child development because I plan on becoming a teacher. If I was uneducated about these theories, I would not be a very effective teacher. Knowing these different theories helps me to understand my students and the level of cognitive development that they have reached.

  

Intelligence Theory

Intelligence is one's ability to adapt to their environment. British psychologist Charles Spearman (1836-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were surprisingly similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. 
He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed  

 Schaie, K. W. (2010). Primary mental abilities. Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology.                                                           

 Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:

Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

· Visual-spatial Intelligence

· Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

· Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

· Logical-mathematical Intelligence

· Interpersonal Intelligence

· Musical Intelligence

· Intra personal Intelligence

· Naturalistic Intelligence

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational researcher, 18(8), 4-10.

Louis L. Thurstone : Primary Mental Abilities 

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. His theory is a model of human intelligence that challenged Charles Spearman's then-dominant view of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different “primary mental abilities” The abilities that he described were:

· Verbal comprehension

· Reasoning

· Perceptual speed

· Numerical ability

· Word fluency

· Associative memory

· Spatial visualization
 Plucker, J. A., & Esping, A. (Eds.). (2014). Human intelligence: Historical influences, current controversies, teaching resources. Retrieved [April 22, 2015], from http://www.intelltheory.com.

Behavior and Social Learning

   

 Children learn how to behave by imitating the behavior they see. It is not human nature to automatically do the right thing we have to be taught. A parent's expectations help to shape a child's behavior. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory states that behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Bandura believes that people are information processors and that they think about their actions and its consequences. Children have many models in society such as athletes, TV shows, cartoon characters,etc... The child will also consider what consequences the model has after certain behavior. This also influences a child's behavior. This is called vicarious reinforcement.
   Reinforcement can be either positive or negative but either way it will cause a change in behavior. Children want the approval of their parents and the feeling of disappointment from parents can sometimes be enough to deter the behavior

     When I become a teacher it is important for me to understand why children behave the way they do, and how I can change their behavior. It is very possible that I will have students in my class that are disobedient. There are many causes for this but the main one being a lack of discipline and expectations from the parents. In a class with twenty kids there has to be discipline. I want my students to understand that I have expectations of them and if they do not behave there will be consequences. 
(McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bandura - Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html).

Physical Development

The Fetal Stage is around 8 weeks from conception until the baby is born. In this stage of life the baby begins to form its skeleton.The baby also begins to respond to sounds and vibrations. Even the mood of the mother can effect the baby. As soon as the baby is born the bonding between baby and mother is crucial. The child begins reaching milestones in language. Usually a baby begins babbling and attempting to talk around 6 months but their first understood words won't come until after their first birthday. The older they get the more independent the child will become. When the child hits puberty, usually in middle school, they become sexually mature and their reproductive organs have fully developed.This time in their life can be challenging and strange to them. They may feel awkward and if they don't have friends going through puberty at the same time the child may feel alone. This time in their life it is very important for parents to maintain a close relationship with their children and let them know that they are not alone in these changes in their body.

Parenting

 

   Parents have the most influence on their children. That can be a good thing but it can also be a not so good thing. The way parents discipline their children has a huge impact on their development socially and emotionally. If parents are not involved in their child's life their children feel neglected and have a high tendency to get into to more trouble at school, get involved with drugs, or drop out of school. The warmth that parents bring into their relationship with their children can decide whether or not the child will be obedient(V.D."The Importance of Parent-child Relations in the General Development of Children." Everyday Life. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2015). 

     The roles of each parent are very different in the roles they play in their child's development emotionally and socially. Mothers serve as the protector and teacher while fathers are counselors and life coaches(V.D. "The Importance of Parent-child Relations in the General Development of Children." Everyday Life. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2015). Parents have a very important job of training up their children and teaching them. Even when children think their parents are just spending quality time with them they can actually be learning useful life skills.