This is my final project blog for EDPR.
There is a list to the right of all my posts and their dates.
Some posts were a little long so in order to read the whole thing you must click on "read more" at the bottom of the post.
Hope you like it!
Bem was an American psychologist known for her works in androgyny and gender studies. She created the Bem Sex Role Inventory, which is an inventory that acknowledges that individuals may exhibit both male and female characteristics. The BSRI is a scale developed to tell what kind of sex role an individual fulfills. It is a self-report inventory that asks participants how well 60 different attributes describe themselves by using a seven-point scale. These attributes reflect the definition of masculinity (20 questions) and femininity (20 questions), and the remaining 20 questions were merely filler questions In this inventory the feminine and masculine items were chosen on what was culturally appropriate for males and females at that time in the early 1970s. The BSRI was later used to measure psychological flexibility and behavioral indicators.Bem also developed the gender schema theory. This theory states that an individual uses gender as a way to organize various things in a person's life into categories. Her research questioned the social beliefs and assumptions that sex roles are opposite, bipolar, and mutually exclusive. The data she collected were supportive of a merging of male and female traits to enable a person to be a fully functioning, adaptive human over an emphasis on gender stereotypes.
A person with high masculine and low feminine identification would be categorized as "masculine". A person with high feminine identification and low masculine identification, would be categorized as "feminine". A person who had high identification with both characteristics would be categorized as "androgynous". A person who has low identification with both dimensions would be considered "undifferentiated".
One of Bem's main arguments was that traditional gender roles are restrictive for both men and women, and can have negative consequences for individuals as well as society as a whole.
Koesterer. M,Dr. Sandra Lipsitz Bem: An Unconventional Life. retrieved from http://www2.webster.edu/~woolflm/sandrabem2.htm
Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that children had made a cognitive judgement about their gender identity before they selected same sex models for sex typed behaviors. Kholberg created the three steps for his Gender Constancy Theory. When a children had achieved gender consistency, they are highly motivated to make their behavior consistent with their self concept of their own gender. By the age six years, children become extremely intolerant of others who violates traditional standards of masculinity or femininity when acquire gender constancy.The nine year old children are less chauvinistic about sex role standards and sex typed activities. They are able more able to think abstractly and see the arbitrary nature of many sex role stereotypes. They have a more flexible view of sex role standards as social conventions rather than moral absolutes which everyone must obey.
McLeod, S. A. (2011). Kohlberg. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
Erik Erikson does not talk about psycho-sexual Stages, he discusses psycho-social stages. His ideas though were greatly influenced by Freud, going along with Freud’s theory regarding the structure and development of personality. However, where Freud was an id psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the id and the superego. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future.Erikson extends on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include the entire lifespan. Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life. Erikson put a great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s identity.
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.
Davis,D.& Clifton,A. Erikson's Stages.from http://www.haverford.edu April 27,2015
Identification is a psychological process where the subject assimilates an aspect, property, or attribute of the other and is transformed, wholly or partially, by the model the other provides.
Sigmund Freud explored the human mind more thoroughly than any other who became before him. His contributions to psychology are vast. Freud was one of the most influential people of the twentieth century and his enduring legacy has influenced not only psychology, but art, literature and even the way people bring up their children. Freud later developed a morestructured modelof the mind containing the id, ego and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical areas of important mental functions. Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle. Theidcomprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating and sex. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings. When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus helping people to survive rather than self-destruct.
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.
The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.
The superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is conflict between the goals of the id and superego the ego must act as a referee and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.
Psycho-Sexual Theory
In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked women, in particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases the result was some form of neurotic illness.
Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients. This was not primarily an investigation of sexual experiences. Far more important were the patient’s wishes and desires, their experience of love, hate, shame, guilt and fear – and how they handled these powerful emotions.It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud’s work – his theory of psycho-sexual development and of the Oedipus comple
Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge. There are a number of stages of childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object’.
To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage. Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully – the person becomes ‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how adult personality is determined by their childhood experiences.
Boundless. “Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality.” Boundless Psychology. Boundless, 21 Jan. 2015. Retrieved 23 Apr. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/psychology
Kohlberg agreed with Piaget's theory of moral development in principle but wanted to expand on his ideas. This resulted in the development of his well known stage theory of children's moral development.
According to Kohlberg, children early in their middle childhood stage of development will typically display “Preconventional” moral reasoning. Children will acknowledge that it is considered immoral to steal from others; that you must earn or be given things and not simply take them. Children will tend to live in accordance with these rules but primarily for selfish reasons, as a way of avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for themselves. At this point in time, they will appreciate their ability to make different kinds of choices, and also the reality of consequences associated with those choices. They realize that morally good behaviors attract praise and positive regard from peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring about unpleasant consequences and negative regard.
At the "Conventional" level we begin to understand the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs.
At the "PostConventional" level Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice 10–15% of adults, not before mid-30s.
McLeod, S. A. (2011). Kohlberg. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
I have never had to make a moral decision that could possibly save someone's life but I have, had to make hard moral decisions. I have been raised in a religious family where I have been taught to always do the right thing no matter what. I haven't always done that though, I have struggled to make good choices,and I have suffered the consequences. But I also witness this from my little sister. I see her doing what she thinks is "right" and not understanding why something is wrong. Since she does not understand why things are right or wrong she does what she is told to do, in order to stay out of trouble.
Being able to understand the way children view morality will help me greatly when I become a teacher. It will be important to help my students understand why things are right or wrong. Also as I teach I will try to focus on the moral of the story and key things. I will also explain to them that not everyone has the same moral standards,and just because some people say something is "right" does not necessarily mean it is.
Piaget's Moral Development Theory According to Piaget’s theory, there are three broad stages of moral development. In the first, the child is still mastering motor and social skills and unconcerned with morality. In the second, the child exhibits unconditional respect for rules and submission to authority. In the last stage, the child recognizes that rules can be changed with group consensus; the intentions of an actor rather than just the consequences of the action should be considered in judging the morality of an act. Piaget believed that there were two main levels to moral development during childhood. The first is called heteronomous morality, and the second is called autonomous morality. Heteronomous morality is the moral understanding that, rules handed down by authority figures such as parents, teachers and government leaders are seen as absolute and unbreakable. Basically, children accept that authority figures have godlike powers, and are able to make rules that last forever, do not change, and must be followed. Children’s reasoning regarding why these rules should be followed is generally based squarely upon their appreciation of consequences associated with breaking the rules. As breaking the rules tends to lead to negative personal consequences, most children follow the rules as a way to avoid being punished.
Dr. David Elkind is a child psychologist, educator, and author who has built on and furthered the works of, Jean Piaget. He has focused on the cognitive, perceptual, and social development of children and adolescents with an emphasis on what qualifies as healthy development. His research and writings have included the effects of stress and the importance of creative, spontaneous play for healthy development and academic learning. One of Elkind's most well-known contributions to society is his work on adolescent psychology in which he expands on Piaget's description of adolescent egocentrism. According to Piagetian theory, the abilities to separate oneself from one's own thoughts and analyze them, as well as understanding others' thoughts is developed only at youngadolescence. Elkind describes how young adolescents, because they are undergoing major physiological changes, are preoccupied by themselves. The egocentrism of adolescents lies in their belief that others are as preoccupied with their appearance and behavior as they are. As a consequence, the adolescent anticipates other people's responses and thoughts about his or herself, and is, in a way, constantly creating or reacting to an imaginary audience. According to Elkind, this probably plays a role in the self-consciousness so common in early adolescence, as well as other experiences in this period of life. Elkind also introduced the idea of the personal fable, in which the adolescent constructs a story about herself, a version of her life stressing the uniqueness of her feelings and experiences. Indeed, these ideas of personal uniqueness are also seen in a common conviction that the adolescent will not die. Elkind stressed how he found these concepts useful in understanding and treating troubled adolescents. Elkind believes the egocentrism of early adolescence usually lessens by the age of 15 or 16 as cognitive development proceeds. Enright, R. D., Lapsley, D. K., & Shukla, D. G. (1979). Adolescent egocentrism in early and late adolescence. Adolescence.
Adolescent egocentrism and formal operations: Tests of a theoretical assumption.
Lapsley, Daniel K.; Milstead, Matt; Quintana, Stephen M.; Flannery, Daniel; Buss, Raymond R.
Developmental Psychology, Vol 22(6), Nov 1986, 800-807
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory. Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."
Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function." In other words, social learning tends to come before development. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop his ideas, but he died at the age of 37 and so his theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian. No single principle can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is included. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.
More Knowledgeable Other
The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance - a child or their parents?
In fact, the MKO does not have to be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.
Zone of Proximal Development
The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Vygotsky sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor often the parent or teacher then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology. Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
Learning about Piaget's theory and the different stages is unique for me because I have three younger siblings. So I can look at the different stages and compare that to my siblings. My youngest brother is 1 years old so he would be in stage one. My sister is 2 years old almost 3 so she would be in stage 2. My oldest brother is 15 so he would be in stage 4 just like me.
Its important that I learn about different theories of child development because I plan on becoming a teacher. If I was uneducated about these theories, I would not be a very effective teacher. Knowing these different theories helps me to understand my students and the level of cognitive development that they have reached.
Intelligence is one's ability to adapt to their environment. British
psychologist Charles Spearman (1836-1945) described a concept he referred to as
general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known
as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman
concluded that scores on these tests were surprisingly similar. People who
performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests,
while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed
Schaie, K. W. (2010). Primary mental abilities. Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology.
Howard Gardner - Multiple
Intelligences:
Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores,Gardnerproposed that numerical expressions of
human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities.
His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and
abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligencesGardnerdescribed are:
· Visual-spatial
Intelligence
· Verbal-linguistic
Intelligence
· Bodily-kinesthetic
Intelligence
· Logical-mathematical
Intelligence
· Interpersonal
Intelligence
· Musical Intelligence
· Intra personal
Intelligence
· Naturalistic Intelligence
Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational researcher, 18(8), 4-10.
Louis L. Thurstone : Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L.
Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. His theory is a model of human intelligence that challenged Charles Spearman's then-dominant view of intelligence. Instead of viewing
intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven
different “primary mental abilities” The abilities that he described were:
· Verbal comprehension
· Reasoning
· Perceptual
speed
· Numerical
ability
· Word
fluency
· Associative
memory
· Spatial
visualization Plucker, J. A., & Esping, A. (Eds.). (2014). Human intelligence: Historical influences, current controversies, teaching resources. Retrieved [April 22, 2015], from http://www.intelltheory.com.
Children learn how to behave by imitating the behavior they see. It is not human nature to automatically do the right thing we have to be taught. A parent's expectations help to shape a child's behavior. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory states that behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Bandura believes that people are information processors and that they think about their actions and its consequences. Children have many models in society such as athletes, TV shows, cartoon characters,etc... The child will also consider what consequences the model has after certain behavior. This also influences a child's behavior. This is called vicarious reinforcement. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative but either way it will cause a change in behavior. Children want the approval of their parents and the feeling of disappointment from parents can sometimes be enough to deter the behavior When I become a teacher it is important for me to understand why children behave the way they do, and how I can change their behavior. It is very possible that I will have students in my class that are disobedient. There are many causes for this but the main one being a lack of discipline and expectations from the parents. In a class with twenty kids there has to be discipline. I want my students to understand that I have expectations of them and if they do not behave there will be consequences. (McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bandura - Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html).
The Fetal Stage is around 8 weeks from conception until the baby is born. In this stage of life the baby begins to form its skeleton.The baby also begins to respond to sounds and vibrations. Even the mood of the mother can effect the baby. As soon as the baby is born the bonding between baby and mother is crucial. The child begins reaching milestones in language. Usually a baby begins babbling and attempting to talk around 6 months but their first understood words won't come until after their first birthday. The older they get the more independent the child will become. When the child hits puberty, usually in middle school, they become sexually mature and their reproductive organs have fully developed.This time in their life can be challenging and strange to them. They may feel awkward and if they don't have friends going through puberty at the same time the child may feel alone. This time in their life it is very important for parents to maintain a close relationship with their children and let them know that they are not alone in these changes in their body.
Parents have the most influence on their children. That can be a good thing but it can also be a not so good thing. The way parents discipline their children has a huge impact on their development socially and emotionally. If parents are not involved in their child's life their children feel neglected and have a high tendency to get into to more trouble at school, get involved with drugs, or drop out of school. The warmth that parents bring into their relationship with their children can decide whether or not the child will be obedient(V.D."The Importance of Parent-child Relations in the General Development of Children." Everyday Life. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2015).
The roles of each parent are very different in the roles they play in their child's development emotionally and socially. Mothers serve as the protector and teacher while fathers are counselors and life coaches(V.D. "The Importance of Parent-child Relations in the General Development of Children." Everyday Life. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2015). Parents have a very important job of training up their children and teaching them. Even when children think their parents are just spending quality time with them they can actually be learning useful life skills.
